METABOLIC SYNDROME: DEFINITIONS, EPIDEMIOLOGY, ETIOLOGY, COMPONENTS AND TREATMENT.
Keywords:
Metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance.Abstract
The metabolic syndrome (MS) is a clinical disorder characterized by abdominal obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. The MS is a state of chronic low grade inflammation with profound systemic effects. The MS increases the risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The risk for adverse health outcomes increase substantially with accumulation of components MS risk factors. Over the last two decades, various organizations have proposed different definitions, using varying terminologies. Several factors modulates the prevalence of MS including lifestyle factors such as por nutritional quality and lack of physical activity. Age, race, and sex also contribute to metabolic susceptibility. Excess ectopic and/or visceral adiposity is fundamental to the pathophysiology of MS. An initial approach in the therapy of MS include some combination among weight reduction, dietary modification, and increased physical activity, preferably all three. Pharmacological treatment should be considered for those whose risk factors are not adequately reduced with the preventive measures and lifestyle changes.
References
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2. Kaur, J. (2014). A comprehensive review on metabolic syndrome. Cardiology Research and Practice, 1-21.
3. Bonomini, F., Rodella, L. F. & Rezzani, R. (2015). Metabolic syndrome, aging and involvement of oxidative stress. Aging and Disease, 6, 2, 109-120.
4. Vykoukal, D. & Davies, M. (2011). Vascular biology of metabolic syndrome. J Vasc Surg, 54(3), 819-831.
5. Sperling, L., Mechanick, J., Neeland, I. J., Herrick, C. J., Després, J. P. Ndumele, C., et al. (2015). The cardiometabolic health Alliance. Working toward a new care model for the metabolic syndrome. J Am Col Cardiol, 66, 9, 1051-1067.
6. Ikun, O. & Boudina S. (2013). Cardiac dysfunction and oxidative stress in the metabolic syndrome: an update on antioxidant therapies. Curr Pharm Des, 19, 27, 4806-4817.
7. Hutcheson, R. & Rocic, P. (2012). The metabolic syndrome, oxidative stress, environment, and cardiovascular disease: the great exploration. Experimental Diabetes Research, 1-13.
8. Yudkin, J. S., Juhan-Vague, I., Hawe, E., Humphries, S. E., Di Minno, G., Margaglione, M., et al. (2004). Low grade inflammation may play a role in the etiology of the metabolic syndrome in patients with coronary Heart disease: the HIFMECH study. Metabolism, 53, 852-857.
9. Shin, J. A., Lee, J. H., Lim, S. Y., Ha, H. S., Kwon, H. S., Park, Y. M., et al. (2013). Metabolic syndrome as a predictor of type 2 diabetes, and its clinical interpretations and usefulness. J Diabetes Invest, 4,4, 334-343.
10. Blümel, B., Flores, M., González, J. A. y Arraztoa, J. A. (2005). ¿Es el HOMA un instrumento adecuado para el diagnóstico de insulino resistencia en pacientes con síndrome de ovario poliquístico? Rev Chil Obstet Ginecol, 70, 5, 345-351.
11. Von Frankenberg. A,, Do Nascimento, F., Gatelli, L. E., Nedel, B. L., Garcia, S. P., Oliveira, C. S., et al. (2014). Major components of metabolic syndrome and adiponectin levels: a cross-sectional study. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome, 6, 1-9.
12. Khoo, M., Oliveira, F. & Cheng L. (2013). Understanding the metabolic syndrome: a modelins perspective. Rev Biomed Engl, 6, 143-155.
13. Rodríguez, A., Delgado-Cohen, H., Reviriego, J. & Serrano-Ríos, M. (2011). Risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome in type 2 diabetes patients according to World Health Organization, Third Report National Cholesterol Education Program, and International Diabetes Federation definitions. Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity: Targets and therapy, 4, 1-4.
14. Luksiene, D. L., Baceviciene, M., Tamosiunas, A., Reklaitiene, R. & Radisauskas R. (2012). Comparison of four definitions of the metabolic syndrome and odds of isquemic Heart disese in the Lithuanian urban population. Int J Public Health, 57, 3, 543-550.
15. Wen, J., Yang, J., Shi, Y., Liang, Y., Wang, F., Duan, X., et al. (2015). Comparisons of different metabolic syndrome definitions and associations with coronary heart disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease in a rural chinese population. PLOS ONE, 10, 5, 1-15
16. Lijnen, H. R. (2009). Role of fibrinolysis in obesity and thrombosis. Thrombosis Research, 123, 4, S46-S49.
17. Al-Aqeedi, R. F., Abdullatef, W. K., Dabdoob, W., Bener, A., Albinali, H. A. & Gehani, A. (2013). The prevalence of metabolic syndrome components, individually and in combination, in male patients admitted with acute coronary syndrome, without previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Libyan J Med, 8, 1-7.
18. Khosravi-Boroujeni, H., Ahmed, F., Sadeghi, M., Roohafza, H., Talaei, M., Dianatkhah, M., et al. (2015). Does the impact of metabolic syndrome on cardiovascular events vary by using different definitions? BMC Public Health, 15, 1-8.
19. Nishimura, R., Nakagami, T., Tominaga, M., et al. (2007). Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and optimal waist circumference cutoff values in Japan. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 78, 77-84.
20. Bener, A., Yousafzai, M., Darwish, S., Al-Hamaq, A., Nasralla, E. & Abdul-Ghani, M. (2013). Obesity index that better predict metabolic syndrome: body mass index, waist circumference, waist hip ratio, or waist height ratio. J Obesity, 1-9.
21. Parikh, R. & Mohan, V. (2012). Changing definitions of metabolic syndrome. Indian J Endocrinology and Metabolism, 16, 1, 7-12.
22. Zhou, J-Y., Ge, H., Zhu, M-F., Wan,g L-J., Chen, L., Tan, Y-Z., et al. (2013). Neck circumference as an independent predictive contributor to cardio-metabolic syndrome. Cardiovascular Diabetology, 12: 1-7.
23. Mogre, V., Salifu, Z. & Abedandi, R. (2014). Prevalence, components and associated demographic and lifestyle factors of the metabolic syndrome in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders, 13, 1-7.
24. Sun, D. L., Wang, J. H., Jiang, B., Li, L. S., Wu, L., Wu, H. Y., He, Y. (2012). Metabolic syndrome vs its components for prediction of cardiovascular mortality: a cohort study in chinese elderly adults. J Geriatric Cardiology, 9, 123- 129.
25. Chackrewarthy, S., Gunasekera, D., Pathmeswaren, A., Wijekoon, C. N., Ranawaka, U. K., Kato, N., et al. (2013). A Comparison between revised NCEP ATP III and IDF definitions in diagnosing metabolic syndrome in an urban Sri Lanka population: The Ragama Health Study. ISRN Endocrinology, 1-7
26. Zambon, S., Zanoni, S., Romanato, G., Corti, M. C., Noale, M., Sartori, L., et al. (2009). Metabolic syndrome and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in an Italian elderly population: the Progetto Veneto Anziani (Pro. V. A.) Study. Diabetes Care, 32, 153-159.
27. Jee, S. H. & Jo, J. (2012). Linkage of epidemiologic evidence with the clinical aspects of metabolic syndrome. Korean Society Cardiology, 42, 6, 371-378.
28. Ivezic-Lalic, D., Bergman, B., Kranjcevic, K., Kern, J., Vrdoljak, D. & Vucak, J. (2013). Diversity of metabolic syndrome criteria in association with cardiovascular diseases-a family medicine-based Investigation. Medical Science Monitor, 19, 571-578.
29. Wilson, P. W., D´Agostino, R. B., Parise, H., et al. (2005). Metabolic syndrome as a precursor of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation, 112, 3066-3072.
30. Nakanishi, N., Takatorige, T., Fukuda, H., et al. (2004). Components of the metabolic syndrome as predictors of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Japanese men. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 6, 59-70.
31. Monteiro, R. & Azevedo, I. (2010). Chronic inflammation in obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Mediators of Inflammation,: 1-10.
32. Anand, S. S., Tarnopolsky, M. A., Rashid, S., Schulze, K., Desai, D., Mente, A., et al. (2011). Adipocyte hypertrophy, fatty liver, and metabolic risk factors in South Asians: The Molecular Study of Health and Risk Ethnic Groups (mol.SHARE). PLOS One, 6, 7, 1-8.
33. Chandalia, M., Lin, P., Seenivasan, T., Livingston, E., Snell, P., Grundy, S. & Abat, N. (2007). Insulin resistance and body fat distribution in South Asian men compared to Caucasian men. PLOS One, 2, 8, 1-7.
34. Park, Y. W., Zhu, S., Palaniappan, L., Heshka, S., Carnethon, M. R. & Heymsfield, B. (2003). The metabolic syndrome: prevalence and associated risk factor findings in the US population from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Archives of Internal Medicine, 163, 4, 427-436.
35. Faloia, E., Grazia, M., De Robertis, M., Luconi, M. P., Furlani, G. & Boscaro, M. (2012). Inflammation as a link between obesity and metabolic syndrome. J Nutrition and Metabolism, 1-7.
36. Monteiro, R. & Azevedo, I. (2010). Chronic inflammation in obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Mediators of Inflammation, 1-10.
37. Misra, A. & Shrivastava, U. (2013). Obesity and dyslipidemia in south asians. Nutrients, 5, 2708-2733.
38. Vaziri, N. (2009). Causes of disregulation of lipid metabolism in chronic renal failure. Sem Dial, 22, 6, 644-651
39. Athyros, V., Tziomalos, K., Karagiannis, A. & Mikhailidis, D. (2011). Dyslipidaemia of obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: the case for residual risk reduction after statin treatment. Open Cardiovasc Med J, 5, 24-34.
40. Mendizábal, Y., Llorens, S. & Nava E. (2013). Hypertension in metabolic syndrome: vascular Pathophysiology. Int J Hypertension, 1-15.
41. Putnam, K., Shoemaker, R., Yiannikouris, F. & Cassis, L. (2012). The renin-angiotensin system: a target of and contributor to dyslidemias, altered glucose homeostasis, and hypertension of the metabolic syndrome. Ann J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 302, H1219-H1230.
42. Malin, S., Finnegan, S., Fealy, C., Filion, J., Rocco, M. & Kirwan, J. (2014). β-cell dysfunction is associated with metabolic syndrome severity in adults. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders, 12,2, 79-85.
43. Newsholme, E. P., Haber, S. & Hirabara, S. M., et al. (2007). Diabetes associated cell stress and dysfunction: role of mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial ROS production and activity. Journal of Physiology, 583, 1, 9-24.
44. Fu, Z., Gilberth, E. & Liu, D. (2013). Regulation of insulin synthesis and secretion and pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction in diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev, 9, 1, 25-53.
45. Flier, S. N., Kulkarni, R. N. & Kahn, C. R. (2001). Evidence for circulating islet cell growth factor in insulin resistant states. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 98, 13, 7475-7480.
46. Jaikaran, E. T. & Clark, A. (2001). Islet amyloid and type 2 diabetes: from molecular misfolding to islet Pathophysiology. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1537, 3, 179-203. [PubMed: 11731221].
47. Kajimoto, Y. & Kaneto, H. (2004). Role of oxidative stress in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. Annal of the New York Acad Sci, 1011, 168-176.
48. Eizirik, D. L., Cardozo, A. K. & Cnop, M. (2008). The role for endoplasmic reticulum stress in diabetes mellitus. Endocrine Reviews, 29, 1, 42-61.
49. Cai, D. & Liu, T. (2012). Inflammatory cause of metabolic syndrome via brain stress and NF-kB. Aging, 4, 2, 98-115.
50. Gurzov, E. N. & Eizirik, D. L. (2011). Bcl-2 proteins in diabetes: mitochondrial pathways of beta-cell death and dysfunction. Trends in Cell Biology, 21, 7, 424-431.
51. Russo, I. (2012). The prothrombotic tendency in metabolic syndrome: focus on the potential mechanisms involved in impaired haemostasis and fibrinolytic balance. Scientifica, 1-17.
52. De Pergola, G., Pannacciulli, N., Coviello, P., et al. (2008). P-selectin plasma levels in obesity: association witj insulin resistance and related metabolic and prothrombotic factors. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 18, 3, 227-232.
53. Fuentes, E., Fuentes, F., Vilahur, G., Badimon, L. & Palomo, I. (2013). Mechanism of chronic state of inflammation as mediators that link obese adipose tissue and metabolic syndrome. Mediators of inflammation, 1-11.
54. Sur, G., Floca, E., Kudor-Szabadi, K., Sur, M. L., Sur, D. & Samasca, G. (2014). The relevance of inflammatory markers in metabolic syndrome. MAEDICA, 9, 1, 15-18.
55. Ridker, P. M., Hennekens, C. H., Buring, J. E. & Rifai, N. (2000). C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular dosease in women. N Engl J Med, 342, 836-843.
56. Ridker, P. M., Buring, J. E. & Cook, N. R. (2003). C-reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular events: an 8-year follow-up of 14,719 initially healthy American women. Circulation, 107, 391- 397.
57. Devaraj, S., Valleggi, S., Siegel, D. & Jialal, I. (2010). Role of c-reactive protein in contributing to increased cardiovascular risk in metabolic syndrome. Curr Atheroscler Rep, 12, 110-118.
58. Al-Qaisi, M., Kharbanda, R. K., Mittal, T. K. & Donald, A. (2008). Measurement of endothelial function and its clinical utility for cardiovascular risk. Vasc Health Risk Manag, 4, 647-652.
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2020-11-12
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METABOLIC SYNDROME: DEFINITIONS, EPIDEMIOLOGY, ETIOLOGY, COMPONENTS AND TREATMENT. (2020). Medicina Legal De Costa Rica, 34(1). https://www.binasss.sa.cr/ojssalud/index.php/mlcr/article/view/42
